Basic Electronics and Tutorials

Tektronix electronic test, measurement and monitoring equipment. Tektronix, Inc. is a United States corporation best known for its test and measurement equipment such as oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and video and mobile test protocol equipment. Tek is the nickname by which Tektronix is known to its employees, customers, and neighbors.

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Here is a complete project which will help in learning to apply the CA3140 in a small instrument that could be used in your test bench along with the oscilloscope. It is necessary to study the datasheet for understanding the device and this application with full details.

CA3140 4.5MHz, BiMOS Operational Amplifier with MOSFET Input/Bipolar Output

"A function generator having a wide tuning range is shown in Figure 10. The 1,000,000/1 adjustment range is accomplished by a single variable potentiometer or by an auxiliary sweeping signal. The CA3140 functions as a non-inverting readout amplifier of the triangular signal developed across the integrating capacitor network connected to the output of the CA3080A current source."

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For an T&M Learning, Start with these tutors of NI. Like Analog Amplifier Circuits and Analog RC Filters. RF and Microwave Fundamentals if you want to be good at Communication Technologies. Sensor, DAQ and Instrument Fundamentals for Industrial Automation Learning. - delabs

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• On-Off controls or level trip relays can oscillate if hysteresis dead band is very small or absent.
• Hysteresis is like on at 300 off at 304 like in heaters or air conditioners. If you on-off at sharp 300 there is a chatter or oscillation. This is called dead-band in temperature control. In above example 304-300=4 is the dead-band.
• LF356, TLO71 and CA3140 are FET input Op-Amps, the bias is in pA, The caps for sample hold with these opamps are low leakage ones.10uF tantalum for long time, low resolution data. Long hold times with 12 bit data (analog) use 1uF plastic multilayer and clean-IPA + coat PCB with epoxy.
• Design the product in such a way that neither the pot terminals or pot switch is used for mains voltage, instead use the pot switch or variable resistance for signaling and the mains can be switched with Relay or Thyristor.
• If you need a 10.00K resistor 0.1% and you only have 1% in the market, you can trim lower values to higher values by removing the paint of the resistor and scratching the black metal film till you get the desired value. (this is only for testing or prototype development, R&D, not for manufacturing).
• 7107 and 7135 of Intersil can be tested in-circuit, check Vref for 100mV or 1V reference, then short Vin and Vref the reading should be 1000 counts for 7107 and 10000 counts for 7135. ground plane should be good, no ground loops, PCB only glass epoxy and low leakage caps to be used, then reading will be stable, use some coating on soldered PCB.
• An electrically Noisy environment can be simulated with a hair drier, or hot air blower. Another way Looping the NC (normally closed) contacts of a 230V Electrical Contacter-Relay can make it oscillate, this makes a lot of Sound and more important is the Electrical noise rich in EMI-RFI. This helps basic testing of timers, counters, uP, uC and embedded systems as they may malfunction in noisy environment.
• A Single Pole 12V 100mA relay in a feedback loop, with its contacts, can make a Electrical or Electromechanical Oscillator. This can test your ground loops and digital circuit decoupling caps. It simulates power spikes which may reset some counters.
• When a Machine with many stages or even an entire production line has to be automated, a PLC system is easiest to configure. It has digital inputs for limit switches and proximity sensors, it has analog inputs for any other parameter sensor. The PLC output modules can drive Electrical Contactor circuits with 230V Signal or 4-20 mA for an AC drive. The tacho-generator voltage feedback or pulses feedback from a motor can be fed to PLC inputs too.
• Automation is used to enhance the quality and quantity of the product, also where there is danger to operators or workers. This moves the worker up, into the maintenance and management of materials, machines and systems.
• Industrial Automation is essential to enhance the manufacturing worker to deliver consistent, repeatable and timely delivery of products. Absence of automation makes quality and deliveries unpredictable and stresses worker on monotonous jobs. When the worker is creatively employed with his machine on automation, it is the best scenario.

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• If the waveform on the scope droops then you may need to use a 10X attenuating probe or mode. this attenuator is at the tip of the probe hence better measurement possible, also very high frequency signals may be best transmitted over a 50 ohm impedance matched line to the Oscilloscope. 
• Karl Ferdinand Braun - In 1897 he built the first cathode-ray tube...oscilloscope. CRT technology is to this day used by most television sets and computer monitors. The CRT is still called the "Braun tube".
• Do not use an oscilloscope to measure 230V directly, use a transformer, differential probe or attenuator.
• An oscilloscope 1M probe or a DMM 10M impedance can load circuits with nano-pico amps of bias.

• Test a NPN transistor, DMM in 200K range. emitter negative probe, collector positive probe, it should show open. while still holding that way press wet finger on base and collector, it may show some reading, then it is ok. for PNP swap probes polarity and do the same thing. the wet finger when pressed applies a base current in uA.
• The most common reason of DMM failure is when a person tries to measure 230V AC with a DMM in current or ohms mode, with the probes in the wrong sockets. Use external attenuators and shunts.
• A DMM in diode mode or resistance mode can be used to test IR diodes, take it under 100W lamp and measure, cover the IR diode and measure you will see a response in proper polarity.
• If you put the DMM in 2V mode and measure the voltage across a ordinary LED near a 40W lamp you will see around 200mV. Turn off 40W lamp the mV will fall near 0. Even metal-can transistors with their top ground away will become photo sensors.
• When you measure low voltages or high resistance like 1M with a DMM your body must not be in contact with the probe tips. Body resistance is low in comparison so error in reading or loading of mV from sensor, in sensitive and high impedance ranges.
• Red socket and probe for positive and black socket and probe for negative
• Is it oscillating ?.... We cannot say, it could also be DC, you need to see if a Clock is present. use a signal tracer or a DMM freq mode, or AC measurement.
• Polarity and Zero Cross indicators tell you to swap the leads. Use a comparator or opamp to build it.